The presidency of James A. Garfield is one of American history’s most poignant “what ifs.” A brilliant scholar decorated Civil War general, and seasoned congressman, Garfield brought immense intellectual and moral authority to the White House.
Table of Historical Contents
His tenure, though tragically cut short after just 200 days, was marked by a determined push for civil service reform and a confrontation with the entrenched political patronage system. His presidency offers a fascinating glimpse into the Gilded Age, a period of immense change and deep political division.
Let’s explore the brief but significant presidency of the 20th President of the United States.
| Key Facts: James A. Garfield’s Presidency | |
|---|---|
| Presidential Term | March 4, 1881 – September 19, 1881 |
| Political Party | Republican |
| Vice President | Chester A. Arthur |
| Major Initiatives | Civil Service Reform |
| Post Office Department Corruption Probe | |
| Key Events | Confrontation with Senator Roscoe Conkling |
| Assassination by Charles J. Guiteau |
A Presidency Defined by Conflict and Reform
James A. Garfield entered office as a “dark horse” candidate, nominated by a deadlocked Republican convention in 1880. His victory was a narrow one, and he immediately faced the challenge of uniting a fractured Republican party. The party was split between two main factions: the “Stalwarts,” led by the powerful New York Senator Roscoe Conkling, who were staunch defenders of the political spoils system, and the “Half-Breeds,” who, like Garfield, advocated for civil service reform.
Garfield’s primary goal was to dismantle the system of patronage, where government jobs were handed out as rewards for political loyalty rather than on merit. He believed this system fostered corruption and inefficiency. His commitment to reform set him on a direct collision course with Senator Conkling and the Stalwart faction.
The defining battle of Garfield’s presidency centered on the prestigious post of Collector of the Port of New York. This position-controlled hundreds of appointments and was a major source of power and patronage. Conkling expected to control this appointment, but Garfield defied him by appointing his own choice, William H. Robertson, a prominent opponent of Conkling.
This move was a bold assertion of presidential authority over senatorial courtesy. Conkling, enraged, tried to block the nomination. When he realized he would fail, he and his fellow New York senator, Thomas C. Platt, dramatically resigned from the Senate in protest.
They expected the New York legislature to re-elect them as a show of support, but their gamble backfired. The legislature refused to reappoint them, handing Garfield a stunning political victory. This triumph signaled a major shift in the balance of power between the executive branch and the Senate, strengthening the presidency and dealing a significant blow to the spoils system.
In addition to this high-profile fight, Garfield initiated a probe into corruption within the Post Office Department. He uncovered a scandal involving fraudulent contracts for mail routes, known as “star routes.” Although the investigation was not completed during his lifetime, his efforts to expose and prosecute the offenders demonstrated his commitment to clean government.
The Garfield Administration: A Team of Talent
Garfield assembled a cabinet that reflected his goal of party unity and administrative competence. He sought to balance the competing factions of the Republican party while surrounding himself with men of intellect and integrity.
- James G. Blaine (Secretary of State): A charismatic leader of the Half-Breed faction and Garfield’s primary political rival, Blaine was a natural choice for the premier cabinet post. Despite their past rivalry, the two men developed a close working relationship. Blaine was instrumental in shaping a more assertive American foreign policy, particularly in Latin America, and was by Garfield’s side when he was shot.
- William Windom (Secretary of the Treasury): A former senator from Minnesota, Windom was a respected financial expert. His main task was managing the nation’s debt and currency, a complex challenge in the post-Civil War era.
- Robert Todd Lincoln (Secretary of War): The eldest son of Abraham Lincoln, his appointment brought a sense of historical continuity and gravitas to the administration. Lincoln was a capable administrator who oversaw the U.S. Army during a relatively peaceful period. Tragically, he was an eyewitness to Garfield’s assassination, having also been present at Ford’s Theatre the night his father was killed.
- Wayne MacVeagh (Attorney General): A key figure in the push for reform, MacVeagh was tasked with leading the investigation into the Post Office star route scandal. His aggressive pursuit of corruption showcased the administration’s commitment to clean government.
- Chester A. Arthur (Vice President): A prominent Stalwart and ally of Roscoe Conkling, Arthur’s nomination was a political necessity to appease the Stalwart faction. Garfield and Arthur had a distant and somewhat cool relationship. In a twist of fate, Arthur would ultimately become the champion of the civil service reform that his faction had so vehemently opposed.
First Lady Lucretia Garfield: A Quiet Strength
Lucretia Rudolph Garfield was a scholarly and reserved woman who, like her husband, was an intellectual at heart. She had initially been hesitant about the prospect of becoming First Lady, preferring a private life. However, once in the White House, she approached her role with grace and a quiet determination.
Her primary project was to research the history of the White House furnishings. She was dismayed to find how little was known about the building’s historical contents and began the work of creating a comprehensive catalog. This effort laid the groundwork for future historical preservation of the Executive Mansion.
In May 1881, just two months into her husband’s presidency, Lucretia fell gravely ill with malaria. The nation watched with concern as the President devotedly cared for her, rarely leaving her side. She eventually recovered, but her illness was soon overshadowed by a far greater national tragedy.
When President Garfield was shot, Lucretia’s quiet strength became a source of national inspiration. She bore the long, agonizing ordeal of his slow decline with immense dignity and courage, earning the deep respect and admiration of the American people.
Assessing the Garfield Legacy
On July 2, 1881, President Garfield was shot at a Washington D.C. railroad station by Charles J. Guiteau, a disgruntled and mentally unstable office-seeker who believed he was owed a political appointment. For 79 days, Garfield lingered, fighting a valiant but losing battle against infection caused by the unsanitary medical practices of the time. He died on September 19, 1881.
While his presidency was far too short to enact a broad legislative agenda, its impact was profound. Garfield’s bold stand against Senator Conkling reasserted the power and independence of the presidency. His assassination, a direct result of the toxic patronage system, shocked the nation into action. The public outcry created an unstoppable momentum for reform.
In 1883, President Chester A. Arthur, the former Stalwart, signed the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act into law. This landmark legislation established that federal government jobs should be awarded based on merit through competitive exams rather than political connections. It was the fulfillment of Garfield’s primary presidential goal and became his most enduring legacy.
James A. Garfield’s presidency is a story of unfulfilled promise. He was a leader of immense talent and vision who was struck down just as he began to tackle the deep-seated corruption of his era. His tragic death served as the catalyst for the very reforms he had championed, forever changing the landscape of American public service.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
1. Why was James A. Garfield assassinated?
James A. Garfield was assassinated by Charles J. Guiteau, a lawyer and disgruntled office-seeker. Guiteau was a supporter of the Stalwart faction of the Republican party and deluded himself into believing he was owed a diplomatic post for his “support” during the 1880 election. When he was repeatedly rejected, he became enraged and decided to kill the President. He claimed that Garfield’s death was necessary to heal the rift in the Republican party and elevate Vice President Chester A. Arthur, a Stalwart, to the presidency.
2. What was Garfield’s most significant achievement?
Although he did not live to see it enacted, Garfield’s most significant achievement was paving the way for the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1883. His defiant stand against the spoils system, particularly his victory over Senator Roscoe Conkling, asserted presidential authority and weakened the patronage system. His assassination created a powerful wave of public support for reform, directly leading to the passage of the Pendleton Act, which became the cornerstone of the modern federal civil service.
3. Could modern medicine have saved Garfield?
Historians and medical experts widely believe that President Garfield would have survived his injuries with modern medical care. The bullet was not in a fatal location. However, his doctors, operating without an understanding of germ theory, repeatedly probed the wound with unsterilized fingers and instruments in a desperate attempt to locate the bullet. This introduced bacteria, which led to a widespread infection (sepsis) and ultimately caused his death.
